Epiplatys is a genus name derived from the Greek words “epi” meaning ‘above, on top of’, and “platys” meaning ‘flat, broad’, alluding to the flattened dorsal surface of the anterior half of the body in members of this group.
The term “mesogramma” originates from the Greek words “mesos” meaning ‘middle’, and “gramme” meaning ‘line’, referring to the central line or stripe present in certain members of this genus.
Classification
The family Nothobranchiidae belongs to the order Cyprinodontiformes.
Distribution
Epiplatys mesogramma (HUBER, 1980)
E. mesogramma is native to the Ubangi River drainage in the southwestern region of the Central African Republic. The type locality is a small stream along the Mbaiki-Mongoumba road, located south of Bangui at coordinates 3°55’N, 18°10’E. The Ubangi River is the largest right-bank tributary of the Congo River, draining a vast area. However, E. mesogramma has only been reported from a few locations. To preserve bloodlines and prevent hybridization, aquarists often label the fish with their known population, such as Bangui or KCF 6.
Maintenance
A heavily planted or natural-style aquarium with a sandy substrate and driftwood roots and branches would be an ideal setup for this fish species. To enhance the natural feel of the tank, adding dried leaf litter is recommended. It not only provides cover for the fish but also supports the growth of microbe colonies through decomposition, offering a valuable secondary food source for the fry. Alder cones are also helpful in this regard as they release humic substances beneficial to the fish. Natural peat is not necessary, as it is an unsustainable and environmentally destructive option.
This species thrives under dim lighting, but there are aquatic plant species that can survive under such conditions, such as Microsorum, Taxiphyllum, or Anubias. Additionally, floating vegetation like Ceratopteris is appreciated by the fish.
Diet
In its natural habitat, this species is likely a predator, feeding on both terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates, as well as other zooplankton.
When kept in an aquarium, it will readily consume dried foods of a suitable size. However, to ensure its health, it’s important to provide it with small live and frozen foods like Artemia nauplii, Daphnia, Moina, and grindal worm on a daily basis. It’s also suitable to offer small insects such as crickets or Drosophila fruit flies, but it’s best to feed them fish flakes or vegetable matter to fill their stomachs before offering them to the fish.
Sexual Dimorphism
In this species, males are larger than females and exhibit brighter colors and more extended fins.
Notes
Epiplatys mesogramma (HUBER, 1980)
Epiplatys is the most widely-distributed genus of West African aplocheiloid killifish with a range overlapping that of the other genera native to the region which are more restricted and split into eastern and western groups based on their respective patterns of distribution.
For example, Callopanchax is restricted to coastal lowlands of far Western Africa with Scriptaphyosemion and Archiaphyosemion known only from the interior of the Western rainforest, whereas Aphyosemion and Fundulopanchax present more easterly ranges extending south and eastward from Nigeria.
Although previously considered closely-related to the genus Aplocheilus due to shared similarities such as possessing an upturned mouth and dwelling mostly near the water surface Epiplatys is in fact affiliated with the western group above, i.e., its closest relatives are Callopanchax, Scriptaphyosemion and Archiaphyosemion.
In addition the phylogenetic analysis of Collier et al. (2009) revealed the existence of two distinct clades within Epiplatys itself, one comprising those species restricted to the Western rainforest (the western/savanna clade) and other those inhabiting lowland (coastal) swamps and streams west of the Dahomey Gap.
Most members of the coastal clade have a colour pattern consisting of broad, dark vertical bars which are present in juveniles of those species which lack them as adults, plus many populations possess an asymmetric caudal-fin shape with an extended lower lobe, whereas western clade species tend to lack or only possess thin oblique dark bars on the body and have symmetrically-shaped caudal fins.
References
Collier, G. E., W. J. Murphy and M. Espinoza, 2009 – Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 50(1): 190-196
Phylogeography of the genus Epiplatys (Aplocheiloidea: Cyprinodontiformes).
Hertwig, S. T., 2008 – Zoologica Scripta 37(2): 141-174
Phylogeny of the Cyprinodontiformes (Teleostei, Atherinomorpha): the contribution of cranial soft tissue characters.
Arnold (1911) named the species “Haplochilus panchax blockii” and “Aplocheilus blochii”.
Etymology
Aplocheilus blockii (ARNOLD, 1911) – Green Panchax
The genus name “Aplocheilus” is derived from the Greek words “απλός” (aplós), meaning “simple” or “plain”, and “χείλος” (cheílos), meaning “lip”. The specific epithet “blockii” refers to the individual who first described this species, Arnold, in 1911.
Classification
Order: Cyprinodontiformes
Family: Aplocheilidae
Distribution
This species is indigenous to Sri Lanka and southern India, and has been reported in the states of Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and more recently, Karnataka. However, reports of its occurrence in Pakistan may be inaccurate, and the species’ distribution in some areas of the Western Ghats mountain range in India is yet to be verified. The type locality of this species is simply noted as “Sri Lanka”.
Habitat
The species is classified as euryhaline and typically resides in lowland environments, often in coastal areas. It is frequently found in stagnant or slow-moving brackish or freshwater habitats, particularly those with surface vegetation or overhanging cover. Mangrove swamps and rice paddies are common habitats for this species.
Maximum Standard Length
35 – 45 mm.
Aquarium Size
It is recommended that the minimum base dimensions for housing this species be 45 cm by 30 cm or their equivalent.
Water Conditions
Aplocheilus blockii (ARNOLD, 1911) – Green Panchax
The appropriate water conditions for this species are as follows: temperature ranging from 20 to 28°C, pH between 6.0 and 8.5, and hardness between 90 and 357 ppm.
Diet
The species in the genus Aplocheilus are predators that primarily reside near the water’s surface and consume both aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates. When kept in an aquarium, they can typically be acclimated to consuming dried foods, but it is still recommended to regularly feed them with small live or frozen options such as Artemia, Daphnia, chironomid larvae (bloodworm), and similar fare.
Reproduction
Breeding this species is relatively uncomplicated. The eggs can be laid in woollen mops, fine-leaved plants or mosses, or filamentous algae, depending on what is accessible. After an incubation period of 10-15 days, the fry will require infusoria-grade food initially, before they become big enough to accept Artemia nauplii, microworm, and similar options.
References
Riehl, R. and H. A. Baensch, reprint 2004. Mergus Verlag GmBH, Melle, Germany: 1. 992
Aquarium Atlas, Volume 1. Sixth Revised English Edition.
Cyprinodon is a genus of small freshwater fish in the family Cyprinodontidae. As you mentioned, the name is derived from the Greek words κυπρῖνος (kuprinos), meaning ‘carp’, and ὀδούς (odous), meaning ‘tooth’. This likely refers to the fact that many species in this genus have small, sharp teeth that they use to feed on small invertebrates and other aquatic organisms.
Brontotheroides, on the other hand, is an extinct genus of rhinoceros-like mammals that lived during the Eocene epoch, approximately 37-48 million years ago. The name Brontotheroides comes from the Greek word βροντή (brontē), meaning ‘thunder’, and the suffix -theroides, which means ‘resembling’ or ‘related to’. This name was chosen because of the animal’s resemblance to the brontotheres, a group of large, herbivorous mammals that lived during the Eocene and Oligocene epochs. Brontotheres were known for their distinctive, bony protrusions on their skulls, which some scientists believe may have been used for display or combat. Brontotheroides, on the other hand, had a similar but much more exaggerated nasal structure that has been likened to a pair of horns.
This aquatic organism is exclusive to San Salvador Island in the Bahamas and is found in six hypersaline lakes: Crescent Pond, Osprey Lake, Oyster Lake, Little Lake, Wild Dilly Pond, and Moon Rock Pond. Its type locality, the place where it was first identified, is at Crescent Pond, which is located 1 km southeast of the Gerace Research Centre on San Salvador Island. The coordinates for the type locality are latitude 24°06’45″N and longitude 74°27’28″W.
Habitat
This genus of aquatic organisms, Cyprinodon, does not have any particular habitat preferences beyond the typical littoral habitats. While it is sometimes found in wigeongrass (Ruppia maritima) patches, it is not limited to this type of environment. This species coexists with the closely related species C. variegatus in all six lakes and with C. desquamator in four of them.
Although Cyprinodon species are found in a diverse range of environments such as freshwater rivers and lakes, brackish estuarine waters, isolated springs, and hypersaline lagoons, they typically feed on algae and organic detritus and exhibit allopatric patterns of distribution. However, those found in San Salvador and Lake Chichancanab in Quintana Roo state, Mexico have evolved into multiple species that coexist and exploit specific resources with distinct morphological adaptations, as described in the notes.
Unfortunately, some of the species in Lake Chichancanab are now extinct in the wild due to the introduction of tilapia (Oreochromis spp.) and Astyanax affinis during the 1990s. Martin and Wainwright (2013b) caution that a similar situation could occur in San Salvador since Oreochromis is already present in at least two bodies of water.
Maximum Standard Length
The largest individual known to date measured 36.1 mm.
The species in question is a specialized durophage, meaning it is a predator that feeds on hard-shelled invertebrates, specifically gastropods and ostracods. To aid in this behavior, the species has adapted its jaw morphology to generate greater force and effectively crush shells.
Sexual Dimorphism
The mature males of this species exhibit unique features such as metallic blue speckling on their anterodorsal region and a black margin on their caudal fin, unlike their congeners that display darkened pigmentation on both their body and fins. During the nuptial period, males may develop orange ventral coloration. In contrast, females and juveniles have a distinctive black and white ocellus located on their dorsal fin.
Reproduction
Breeding territories in midwater, located at depths between 0.5 and 1 meter, are guarded by males of this species. Although breeding behavior has been observed throughout the year, it appears to be most prevalent during the spring season.
Notes
Before its formal description, this species was referred to as C. sp. ‘durophage’ or C. sp. ‘bozo’.
One of the distinguishing features of this species is that the anterior process of the maxillary head extends up to, or beyond, the most anterior point on the dentigerous arm of the premaxilla, resulting in a shorter upper jaw when compared to C. variegatus and C. desquamator. This skeletal extension can be observed as a fleshy protuberance that nearly encases the upper jaw when it is retracted.
In addition, this species has paired nasal bones that are not enlarged, but form a more acute angle of approximately 120 degrees with the dorsal margin of the neurocranium compared to C. variegatus and C. desquamator.
As no other Cyprinodon species are known to feed on hard-shelled prey, extensive research has been conducted to determine whether unique mechanisms have driven the evolution of this ecological novelty. Further information on this subject can be found by clicking here.
References
Martin, C. H. and P. C. Wainwright, 2013b – Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History 54(2): 231-240
Remarkable Species Flock of Cyprinodon Pupfishes Endemic to San Salvador Island, Bahamas.
Martin, C. H. and P. C. Wainwright, 2013a – Science 339(6116): 208-211
Multiple Fitness Peaks on the Adaptive Landscape Drive Adaptive Radiation in the Wild.
Martin, C. H. and P. C. Wainwright, 2011 – Evolution 65(8): 2197-2212
Trophic novelty is linked to extremes rates of morphological diversification in two adaptive radiations of Cyprinodon pupfishes.
Missing information here? Our Knowledge Base is an ever-evolving work in progress, which naturally means that some species profiles contain more information than others. We’re working on a daily basis to fill in all the gaps, so please have patience. This site relies heavily on the help of hundreds of people without whose valuable contributions it simply wouldn’t exist. Information and photos regarding any freshwater or brackish fish species, its natural history or captive care is always much appreciated, so if you’ve anything you’d like to share please leave a comment below or email us.
Boulengerella: named for Belgian-British zoologist George Albert Boulenger (1858-1937).
cuvieri: named for French naturalist and zoologist Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Cuvier (1769-1832).
Classification
Order: Characiformes
Family: Ctenoluciidae
Distribution
The type locality of this species is listed as “Rivers of Brazil”, but current records suggest that it can be found in various parts of the Amazon basin, ranging from the Río Nanay in Peru to Amapá state in northeastern Brazil, as well as in the Río Orinoco in Venezuela and Colombia, and coastal drainages in Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana.
Boulengerella cuvieri (SPIX & AGASSIZ, 1829)
The appearance of this species varies throughout its range. Individuals from the Río Orinoco, Guyana, and French Guiana tend to have a darker coloration compared to those from Peru, while specimens from the rios Tocantins and Juruena tend to have more lateral line scales (108-118) than those from the Oyapock (94-101), for example.
Habitat
This particular species is considered to be pelagic, and it’s commonly found in flowing stretches of main river channels, larger tributaries of white and black water rivers, as well as floodplain lakes. As adults, they tend to associate themselves with these habitats.
Ctenolucidae
Floodplain lakes are a type of aquatic ecosystem that is found in low-lying areas adjacent to rivers and streams. They are formed when rivers overflow their banks during periods of high water flow, and the water is trapped in depressions on the floodplain, creating a shallow body of water. Floodplain lakes are an important component of the overall ecosystem of a river system, providing habitat for a wide range of aquatic organisms.
Formation and Characteristics
Floodplain lakes are created during floods when water overflows riverbanks and inundates low-lying areas. As the floodwaters recede, the water is trapped in shallow depressions on the floodplain, forming a lake. These lakes can be temporary or permanent, depending on the amount of water that is trapped in the depression.
Floodplain lakes are typically shallow and have a large surface area in relation to their volume. They can be quite large, covering several hectares, or they may be small, only a few meters in diameter. These lakes are typically characterized by low nutrient levels and high levels of sediment, which can be transported into the lake during periods of high water flow.
Importance of Floodplain Lakes
Floodplain lakes are important habitats for a wide range of aquatic organisms. They provide spawning and nursery grounds for many fish species, including catfish, carp, and bass. The shallow, warm water also supports the growth of aquatic plants, which provide habitat for invertebrates and small fish. These invertebrates, in turn, provide food for larger fish and waterfowl.
Floodplain lakes also play an important role in the overall ecosystem of a river system. During floods, water is transported from the river into the lake, which helps to reduce the flood peak downstream. As the water in the lake gradually recedes, it is released back into the river system, helping to maintain a more stable flow regime.
Human Impact on Floodplain Lakes
Floodplain lakes have been impacted by human activities, particularly those related to agriculture and urbanization. When floodplains are converted to agricultural land, the natural flood regime is disrupted, and the formation of floodplain lakes is reduced. Similarly, when urban areas are built on floodplains, the natural drainage system is disrupted, leading to increased flooding and a reduction in the number of floodplain lakes.
In addition, the water quality of floodplain lakes can be impacted by pollutants from agricultural and urban runoff. Nutrient levels can be elevated, leading to eutrophication and algal blooms. Sedimentation can also be a problem, particularly in areas where the land is heavily disturbed, leading to a loss of habitat for aquatic organisms.
Sexual maturity is reached when individuals of this species reach around 250 mm SL in size. The reproductive season typically occurs between November and March when water levels are at their highest.
In various instances, B. cuvieri has been observed to be collected alongside numerous other fish species, including the majority of its congeners.
Maximum Standard Length
The biggest recorded specimen of this species was 675 mm in size based on official records, but it seems that it can actually grow even larger, potentially exceeding 800 mm.
Aquarium Size
This particular species is only suitable for installation in public settings or the largest private aquariums.
Maintenance
This species is relatively easy to care for, but it does appreciate some surface cover in the form of floating or overhanging vegetation. It thrives in aquariums with a high proportion of dissolved oxygen and a moderate degree of water movement, so it’s recommended to use external filters, powerheads, and airstones as necessary.
In order to maintain stable water conditions and promote the well-being of the fish, it’s important to never add it to biologically-immature aquariums. Additionally, weekly water changes of 30-50% aquarium volume should be considered mandatory.
It’s also essential to have a tightly-fitting cover for the aquarium, as Boulengerella spp. are known for their jumping ability. To reduce the chances of the fish swimming into the glass, it may be beneficial to cover the back and sides of the aquarium, especially since this species can be skittish, especially in confined spaces.
Water Conditions
Temperature: 22 – 28 °C
pH: 5.0 – 7.5
Hardness: 18 – 215 ppm
Diet
An obligate predator feeding mostly on smaller fishes and insects in nature but in most cases adapting well to dead alternatives in captivity.
Bloodworms, small earthworms, chopped prawn, and similar options are suitable for smaller specimens, while adults can be offered strips of fish flesh, whole prawns or shrimp, mussels, live river shrimp, and larger earthworms.
Boulengerella cuvieri (SPIX & AGASSIZ, 1829)
It’s important to note that like most predatory fish, this species should not be fed mammalian or avian meat, such as beef heart or chicken. The lipids contained in these foods cannot be properly metabolized by the fish, which can cause excess fat deposits and even organ degeneration.
Additionally, feeding this species with “feeder” fish, such as livebearers or small goldfish, is not recommended. These fish carry the risk of introducing parasites or diseases and are not highly nutritious unless they are properly conditioned beforehand.
Behaviour and Compatibility
Peaceful with anything too large to swallow and can be maintained in a community provided tankmates are chosen with care.
Aggressively territorial or very competitive species should be avoided, and the best choices for tankmates are similarly-sized fishes such as Cichla spp. and larger doradid or loricariid catfishes.
It’s also recommended to avoid other surface-dwelling fish, although some hobbyists have reported success keeping it alongside related Acestrorhynchus spp.
This species is not aggressive towards its own kind, and juveniles, in particular, exhibit a marked schooling instinct. Older individuals tend to be more solitary but still group together from time to time, and it’s best to maintain them in groups of four or more.
Reproduction
Unrecorded.
Notes
Given its eventual size and natural behavior, this species is largely unsuitable for home aquariums, and only a handful of private aquarists with appropriate facilities can house it long-term. It goes by various vernacular names, including Pirá-pacu, Pira-pucu, or Diente de cao (central Amazon), Bicuda or Uena (rio Tocantins), Bicuda (rio Tapajós), Aguejeta or Picua (Venezuela), and Moruwi or Pirapoko (Guyana).
One way to distinguish this species from all other ctenolucids except B. lucius and B. xyrekes is that the entire dorsal fin base is located anteriorly to a vertical through the anal fin origin. B. cuvieri differs from B. lucius in the presence (vs. absence) of a dark spot at the base of the median caudal fin rays, presence (vs. absence) of a dusky, somewhat diffuse lateral stripe, and absence (vs. presence) of randomly-distributed dark spots on the ventrolateral surface of the body.
B. cuvieri is very similar to B. xyrekes but can be distinguished by the absence (vs. presence) of an oblique stripe on the posteroventral portion of the third infraorbital, possession of 48-49 (vs. 44-46) vertebrae, and 94-124 (vs. 87-94) lateral line scales.
Boulengerella is different from Ctenolucia, the only other genus currently contained in the family Ctenolucidae, by a set of derived features, including possession of 87-124 (vs. 45-50) lateral line scales, the presence of a strongly (vs. weakly) developed fleshy appendage at the tip of the snout, and the absence (vs. presence) of fleshy flaps on the lower jaw.
Ctenolucia
Ctenolucia is a small genus of freshwater fish in the family Ctenolucidae. The genus is native to South America and is closely related to Boulengerella, another genus in the same family. Ctenolucia species are predatory fishes that inhabit various freshwater habitats throughout the continent.
Appearance
Ctenolucia species are elongated, predatory fish that have a streamlined, torpedo-shaped body. They are typically silver or gray in color and have a large dorsal fin located anteriorly to a vertical through the anal fin origin. The species also possesses a long, pointed snout that is filled with many small, curved teeth arranged in a single series within each jaw.
Habitat
Ctenolucia species can be found in various freshwater habitats across South America, including main river channels, larger tributaries of both white and black water rivers, and floodplain lakes. They are pelagic species that are most commonly found in flowing stretches of these habitats.
Feeding
As obligate predators, Ctenolucia species feed primarily on smaller fish and insects in the wild. In captivity, they can adapt to dead alternatives, including bloodworms, small earthworms, chopped prawn, strips of fish flesh, whole prawns or shrimp, mussels, and larger earthworms. Like other predatory fish, Ctenolucia should not be fed mammalian or avian meat, such as beef heart or chicken, as the lipids contained in these foods cannot be properly metabolized by the fish, leading to excess fat deposits and even organ degeneration.
Behavior
Ctenolucia species are typically peaceful fish that can be kept in a community tank, as long as tankmates are selected carefully. They are not aggressive towards conspecifics, and juveniles in particular exhibit a marked schooling instinct. Older individuals tend to be more solitary but still group together from time to time.
Aquarium
Care In terms of aquarium care, Ctenolucia requires stable water conditions, which means it should never be added to biologically-immature aquariums. Weekly water changes of 30-50% aquarium volume should be considered mandatory. These species also appreciate some surface cover in the form of floating or overhanging vegetation. They thrive in aquariums with a high proportion of dissolved oxygen and moderate water movement, so it’s recommended to use external filters, powerheads, and airstones as necessary. It’s also essential to have a tightly-fitting cover for the aquarium, as Ctenolucia are known for their jumping ability.
Boulengerella cuvieri (SPIX & AGASSIZ, 1829)
Within the order Characiformes, the family Ctenoluciidae is also distinguished by a set of synapomorphic characters, including a tapering body shape, elongate jaw shape, and possession of many small teeth with curved tips arranged in a single series within each jaw.
Characiformes is one of the most diverse orders of freshwater fish, currently including close to 2,000 valid species distributed among 19 families. This tremendous taxonomic and morphological diversity has historically impaired the ability of researchers to resolve their genetic relationships, with many genera remaining incertae sedis.
Modern molecular phylogenetic techniques have allowed some progress, and research published by Calcagnotto et al. (2005) revealed some interesting hypotheses. Their results suggest Ctenoluciidae to belong to a trans-atlantic, monophyletic clade alongside the families Lebiasinidae and Hepsetidae, with this assemblage forming a sister group to Alestidae. Others, such as Oliveira et al. (2011), have concluded that the family Erythrinidae is also closely related to this grouping, with Hepsetidae and Alestidae being more distant.
References
Calcagnotto, D., S. A. Schaefer and R. De Salle, 2005 – Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 36(1): 135-153
Relationships among characiform fishes inferred from analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial gene sequences.
Oliveira, C. A., G. S. Avellino, K. T. Abe, T. C. Mariguela, R. C. Benine, G. Orti, R. P. Vari, and R. M. Corrêa e Castro, 2011 – BMC Evolutionary Biology 11(1): 275-300
Phylogenetic relationships within the speciose family Characidae (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Characiformes) based on multilocus analysis and extensive ingroup sampling.
Reis, R. E., S. O. Kullander and C. J. Ferraris, Jr. (eds.), 2003 – EDIPUCRS, Porto Alegre: i-xi + 1-729
Check list of the freshwater fishes of South and Central America. CLOFFSCA.
Vari, R. P., 1995 – Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 564: 1-97
The Neotropical fish family Ctenoluciidae (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Characiformes): supra and intrafamilial phylogenetic relationships, with a revisionary study.
Gasteropelecus: Greek gaster [= stomach] and pelecus [=hatchet, axe]
levis: Latin for smooth. According to his notes, Eigenmann placed this species in his new genus Pterodiscus solely on the basis of the lack of maxillary teeth; some sources suggest this is the “smooth” reference.
Classification
Order: Characiformes
Family: Gasteropelecidae
Distribution
Gasteropelecus levis (EIGENMANN, 1909) – Silver Hatchetfish
Occurs only in the lower Amazon river basin in the state of Pará, Brazil, including the lower portions of the rios Tocantins and Guamá.
Type locality is ‘Belem do Para, Brazil’.
Para
Para is a state in the northern region of Brazil that is rich in culture, history, and natural beauty. Its capital is Belém, a city located at the mouth of the Amazon River, and it is the second-largest state in the country. In this article, we’ll take a closer look at what makes Para unique, including its history, culture, economy, and tourism.
History
Para has a rich history, dating back to pre-Columbian times when it was inhabited by various indigenous groups. The Portuguese arrived in the region in the 16th century, and the state of Para was officially created in 1751, as a result of the Brazilian colonization. Over the years, the state has been known for its valuable natural resources such as rubber, nuts, and wood, which have helped to shape its economy and culture.
Culture
Para is known for its diverse and vibrant culture, with influences from Portuguese, African, and indigenous traditions. The region’s music, dance, and cuisine are particularly noteworthy, and many of the local festivals and celebrations showcase the unique cultural heritage of the state.
One of the most famous festivals in Para is the Círio de Nazaré, which takes place annually in October and draws millions of visitors from around the world. It is a religious festival honoring the Virgin Mary, and it includes a procession through the streets of Belém, with locals carrying a statue of the Virgin. Another popular festival is the Festival of the Bumba-Meu-Boi, which is a celebration of African-Brazilian culture and features colorful costumes, music, and dance.
The cuisine of Para is also renowned, with dishes that incorporate the flavors and ingredients of the Amazon region. Some of the most famous dishes include tacacá, a soup made with shrimp, tucupi (a broth made from cassava), and jambu (a herb that causes numbness in the mouth), and vatapá, a stew made with fish, shrimp, coconut milk, and dendê oil.
Economy
Para has a diverse economy, with a mix of agriculture, mining, and manufacturing industries. The state is home to many valuable natural resources, including gold, iron ore, bauxite, and oil, which contribute significantly to its economy. Agriculture is also a significant sector, with Para being the largest producer of acai berries in Brazil. Other agricultural products include cocoa, coffee, and rubber.
Tourism
Para’s natural beauty is a significant draw for tourists, with its dense forests, rivers, and waterfalls offering visitors a unique glimpse into the Amazon region. The state is home to many national parks and conservation areas, such as the Tapajós National Forest, which is home to a diverse range of flora and fauna, and the Marajó Island, which is one of the largest river islands in the world and is known for its beautiful beaches.
In addition to its natural attractions, Para is also home to many historical and cultural sites, such as the Feliz Lusitânia Fort, which was built by the Portuguese in the 17th century, and the Basilica of Our Lady of Nazaré, which is a major pilgrimage site for Catholics.
In conclusion, Para is a state in Brazil that is rich in culture, history, and natural beauty. Its diverse and vibrant culture, unique cuisine, and valuable natural resources make it a significant contributor to the Brazilian economy, while its stunning landscapes and historical sites make it a popular tourist destination. For those interested in experiencing the beauty and culture of Brazil, a visit to Para is a must.
Habitat
Mainly found in open water of larger igarapés, streams and floodplain lakes (Weitzman & Palmer, 2003).
Maximum Standard Length
30 – 35 mm.
Aquarium Size
An aquarium with a surface area measuring a minimum of 80 ∗ 30 cm or equivalent is required.
Maintenance
To create a suitable environment for the skittish species, it’s advisable to cover a significant portion of the water surface with floating plants. This measure can help to make them less nervous. Additionally, they prefer a tank with some current against which to swim. While the other decorations aren’t essential, they can enhance the tank’s appearance. For instance, heavily planted set-ups and Amazon biotope-style tanks with driftwood branches, sand substrate, and leaf litter look great. It’s crucial to ensure that the tank cover is tightly fitted since this species is capable of jumping several meters in a single leap.
Gasteropelecus levis (EIGENMANN, 1909) – Silver Hatchetfish
Water Conditions
Temperature: 20 – 28 °C
pH: 5.0 – 7.5
Hardness: 18 – 215 ppm
Diet
The natural diet of this species comprises insects found on or possibly above the water surface, crustaceans, and worms. In a study conducted on Thoracocharax stellatus (Netto-Ferreira et al., 2007), it was found that 99.6% of its diet was made up of insects, with the majority (87.6%) being terrestrial.
Initially, this species may be hesitant to eat dried foods, but with time it usually learns to accept them. However, it’s advisable to provide a substantial portion of its diet in the form of live and frozen foods like bloodworm and Daphnia. If available, gut-loaded Drosophila fruit flies make an excellent food source.
Behaviour and Compatibility
This species is highly peaceful, but it can be shy and easily startled. It doesn’t fare well in competition with more boisterous species for food. Suitable tankmates for this species include other small fishes that inhabit different areas of the tank, such as tetras, dwarf cichlids, and catfishes like Corydoras and smaller Loricariids. To ensure a comfortable environment, it’s recommended to purchase at least six individuals as they require the security of conspecifics to settle.
Gasteropelecus levis (EIGENMANN, 1909) – Silver Hatchetfish
Sexual Dimorphism
Females are noticeably rounder-bodied than males when full of eggs.
Reproduction
Unknown. Probably breeds in a similar fashion to the marbled hatchetfish, Carnegiella strigata.
Notes
This species is typically found at or just below the water surface, although it may retreat to midwater when threatened or feeding. Like other freshwater hatchetfish, it’s capable of leaping from the water’s surface and gliding for several meters, a behavior used to catch flying insects and evade potential predators.
Gasteropelecus levis (EIGENMANN, 1909) – Silver Hatchetfish
The species was initially described by Eigenmann, who noted that it lacked teeth on the maxillary. Consequently, he erected the genus Pterodiscus for it. Weitzman (1960), however, placed the species in Gasteropelecus and invalidated Pterodiscus. The family Gasteropelecidae is distinguished from other Characiformes by several characteristics, including the presence of an enlarged, strongly convex muscular pectoral girdle region, greatly expanded coracoids fused to a single fan-shaped and corrugated median bone, and minute pelvic fins and associated bones.
The Gasteropelecidae family comprises three genera: Thoracocharax, Gasteropelecus, and Carnegiella. Thoracocharax contains two species, T. securis and T. stellatus, which are the most primitive and distinguished by their impressive keel. Gasteropelecus contains three larger-sized hatchetfish species: G. sternicla, G. levis, and G. maculatus, which are all silver in coloration. Carnegiella contains four smaller and more specialized hatchetfish species, lacking an adipose fin.
Hatchetfish are commonly referred to as “freshwater hatchetfish” due to their heavily-keeled body shape. They are capable of powerful jumps from the water’s surface, which is a modified threat response used in extreme circumstances. Hatchetfish require a lot of energy to work their massive pectoral girdle muscles and can jump only once or twice before requiring a rest period. Leaving the tank cover open during darkness may result in hatchetfish on the floor by morning.
Once acclimated, this hatchetfish species can make an excellent aquarium resident, but it can be delicate initially. The Characiformes order is one of the most diverse orders of freshwater fishes, with close to 2000 valid species distributed among 19 families. Researchers have faced difficulty resolving genetic relationships among them, but modern molecular phylogenetic techniques have helped in recent years. Recent research suggests that Gasteropelecidae forms a monophyletic clade nested within the family Characidae, with Carnegiella being the sister group of Gasteropelecus and Thoracocharax sister to that clade. The family Gasteropelecidae appears most closely-related to the expanded Bryconidae, which contains the genera Brycon, Henochilus, and Salminus.
Others such as Oliveira et al. (2011) have concluded that the family Erythrinidae is also closely-related to this grouping with Hepsetidae and Alestidae more distant.
References
Eigenmann, C. H., 1909 – Annals of the Carnegie Museum v. 6 (no. 1): 4-54
Reports on the expedition to British Guiana of the Indiana University and the Carnegie Museum, 1908. Report no. 1. Some new genera and species of fishes from British Guiana.
Javonillo, R., L. R. Malabarba, S. H. Weitzman and J. R. Burns, 2010 – Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 54(2): 498-511
Relationships among major lineages of characid fishes (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Characiformes), based on molecular sequence data
Netto-Ferreira, Andre L., Miriam P. Albrecht, JorgeL. Nessimian and Erica P. Caramaschi, 2007 – Neotropical Ichthyology 5(1): 69-74
Feeding Habits of Thoracocharax stellatus (Characiformes: Gasteropelecidae) in the upper Rio Tocantins, Brazil
Oliveira, O., G. S Avelino, K. T. Abe, T. C Mariguela, R.C Benine, G. Ortí, R. P. Vari and R. M. Corrêa e Castro, 2010 – BMC Evolutionary Biology 11: 275-300
Phylogenetic relationships within the speciose family Characidae (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Characiformes) based on multilocus analysis and extensive ingroup sampling
Weitzman, Stanley H. and Lisa Palmer, 1996 – Tropical Fish Hobbyist, September 1996: 195-206
Do Freshwater Hatchetfishes Really Fly
Wiest, F.C., 1995 – Journal of Zoology 236 (4): 571-592
The specialized locomotory apparatus of the freshwater hatchetfish family Gasteropelecidae
The word “Aplocheilus” originates from the fusion of two Greek words: “απλός” (apló), which means “simple” or “plain”, and “χείλος” (cheílos), which denotes “lip”.
The term “parvus” has Latin origins and denotes “little” or “low-cost”.
The origin of this particular species can be traced back to Sri Lanka and the southeastern Indian state of Tamil Nadu.
The location where the specimen was first identified is commonly known as ‘Madras, India’, which is now recognized as Chennai.
Habitat
This species is capable of adapting to a wide range of salinity levels, making it euryhaline, and therefore is most commonly found in low-lying areas, often along the coast, where the water may be brackish or freshwater that is stagnant or slow-moving.
It has a preference for areas that have surface vegetation or overhanging cover and is usually observed in places such as rice paddies and mangrove swamps, where it can thrive.
Minimum base dimensions of 45 ∗ 30 cm or equivalent are recommended.
Water Conditions
Temperature: 20 – 28 °C
pH: 6.0 – 8.5
Hardness: 36 – 357 ppm
Diet
Aplocheilus species are surface-dwelling predators that feed on both aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates.
While Aplocheilus species can adjust to consuming dried foods in captivity, it is recommended to include regular meals of small live or frozen prey, such as Artemia, Daphnia, chironomid larvae (bloodworm), etc., in their diet.
This species is considered easy to breed. They usually deposit their eggs in woolen mops, fine-leaved plants or mosses, or filamentous algae, depending on their availability.
The eggs take about 10-15 days to incubate, and the fry initially require infusoria-grade food until they grow big enough to eat Artemia nauplii, microworm, and other similar prey.
Hemigrammus haraldschultzi is a synonym for Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi. The species was first described by Dr. Heraldo Antonio Britski and Dr. Sergio Macedo Zago in 1999.
The scientific name of the Crystal Red Tetra was previously known as Hemigrammus haraldschultzi, but it was later changed to Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi in 2003 by Dr. Jorge Casciotta and Dr. Adriana Almirón. The species was named after the famous German aquarium fish breeder Harald Schultz, who was known for his expertise in breeding tetras.
Synonyms are scientific names that were used previously to describe a particular species, but have been replaced by the currently accepted scientific name. In the case of the Crystal Red Tetra, Hemigrammus haraldschultzi was the previously accepted scientific name, but it was later replaced by Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi.
It is not uncommon for species to have multiple synonyms, especially when taxonomic classifications are constantly evolving and changing as new information becomes available. However, it is important to use the currently accepted scientific name to avoid confusion and ensure accuracy in scientific research and conservation efforts.
Etymology
Hyphessobrycon is a genus of freshwater fish that belongs to the family Characidae. The name Hyphessobrycon is derived from the Ancient Greek word ‘υπελάσσων’ (hyphesson), which means ‘of lesser stature’, and is used as a prefix in this case to describe the smaller size of these fish. The second part of the name, ‘Brycon’, refers to the generic name of the fish.
The specific epithet ‘haraldschultzi’ refers to the famous Brazilian ethnologist Harald Schultz, who made significant contributions to the study of Amazonian indigenous cultures. The Crystal Red Tetra was named in his honor for his expertise in breeding tetras and his contributions to the aquarium hobby.
Naming a species after a person is a great honor and a testament to their contributions and achievements in their respective field. In the case of the Crystal Red Tetra, Harald Schultz’s expertise in breeding tetras made him a worthy namesake for this beautiful and popular fish species.
The scientific name of the Crystal Red Tetra, Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi, reflects the smaller size of this fish and honors the contributions of a distinguished Brazilian ethnologist and tetra breeder.
Classification
Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi belongs to the order Characiformes, which is a diverse and widespread group of freshwater fish that includes popular aquarium species such as tetras, hatchetfish, and piranhas.
The family Characidae is a group of fish within the Characiformes order that includes many of the most popular freshwater aquarium fish species, such as neon tetras, black tetras, and the Crystal Red Tetra. Characidae fish are known for their colorful and varied appearance, streamlined body with a small adipose fin, elongated anal fin, and unique set of teeth known as tetraodontiform teeth.
Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi is part of the genus Hyphessobrycon, which is a group of small characids known for their peaceful nature and attractive appearance. They are typically found in South America and are popular among aquarium hobbyists for their bright colors and active behavior. Within the genus Hyphessobrycon, H. haraldschultzi is part of the H. eques group, which is characterized by the presence of a prominent dark marking on the dorsal fin.
Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi (TRAVASSOS, 1960) – Crystal Red Tetra
Distribution
Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi is a species of freshwater fish that is endemic to the rio Araguaia system, which is the major tributary of the rio Tocantins within the lower Amazon basin in central and western Brazil. While the exact range of this species within the drainage is not fully understood, it is known to occur in this region.
The type locality for Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi is the ‘Ilha do Bananal, Goiaz, Brazil’, which refers to Bananal Island. This island is the largest fluvial island in the world and is formed from the bisection of the Araguaia in southwestern Tocantins state. This location provides a unique habitat for the Crystal Red Tetra and may play a role in its unique physical characteristics and behavior.
After the bifurcation of the river, the eastern arm is often referred to as the rio Javaés. It is probable that the type series of Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi was collected there, since the Javaés runs through a portion of Goiás state. This area is known for its diverse aquatic life and unique ecological features, which may contribute to the survival and adaptation of this species.
Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi’s range within the rio Araguaia system and its unique habitat on Bananal Island and the rio Javaés, highlight the importance of preserving these areas and their diverse aquatic life. The Crystal Red Tetra is a valuable part of this ecosystem and adds to the biodiversity and beauty of the region.
Habitat
While there is limited information available about the habitat of the Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi, it is presumed to inhabit minor tributaries, backwaters, and oxbow lakes, rather than the main river channels. These habitats provide a more stable and secluded environment for the Crystal Red Tetra to thrive.
In the Araguaia drainage, the habitats where this species is found typically contain soft, weakly acidic water. The substrate is covered by a layer of fallen leaves and branches, which provides a natural environment for the fish and their prey. These conditions allow for the growth of a diverse range of aquatic plants and microorganisms, which contribute to the overall health of the ecosystem.
The preferred habitat of the Crystal Red Tetra highlights the importance of preserving the natural environment and protecting the delicate balance of aquatic ecosystems. By maintaining suitable water conditions and providing a diverse range of habitats for fish species like the Crystal Red Tetra, we can help ensure the continued survival and biodiversity of our planet’s aquatic life.
Maximum Standard Length
The maximum standard length of the Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi, also known as the Crystal Red Tetra, is between 20-25 mm. Despite their small size, these fish are highly prized for their striking red and white coloration, which adds vibrancy and beauty to any aquarium.
Their small size also makes them a great choice for smaller tanks and nano aquariums, allowing for the creation of unique and eye-catching aquatic displays. Despite their diminutive size, these fish are active and social, making them a joy to watch and interact with.
Their small size also makes them relatively easy to care for, as they require less food and produce less waste than larger fish species. This makes them an ideal choice for beginner hobbyists who are just starting out in the aquarium hobby.
The small size of the Crystal Red Tetra is a testament to the diversity and beauty of the aquatic world, proving that even the smallest fish can have a big impact in the world of aquariums.
Aquarium Size
The recommended minimum aquarium size for the Crystal Red Tetra is 60 x 30 cm or equivalent. This size provides enough swimming space and allows for a school of 6-8 individuals to thrive. It is important to provide adequate space to prevent overcrowding, which can lead to stress and health issues in fish. A larger aquarium size can also help maintain stable water conditions and reduce the need for frequent water changes.
Additionally, a larger aquarium size allows for more flexibility in aquascaping, creating a more natural and visually appealing environment for the Crystal Red Tetra.
Providing the appropriate aquarium size is an important factor in ensuring the long-term health and well-being of the Crystal Red Tetra in captivity.
Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi (TRAVASSOS, 1960) – Crystal Red Tetra
Maintenance
The Crystal Red Tetra is best suited for an aquarium setup with a sandy substrate and driftwood roots and branches. They also thrive in a planted tank, with floating plants being a useful addition to the aquarium as they provide shade and cover for the fish.
Dried leaf litter can also be beneficial to the aquarium as it promotes the establishment of microbe colonies, serving as a valuable secondary food source for fry. The humic substances released by the decaying leaves can also be beneficial to the overall health of the aquarium.
Filtration for the Crystal Red Tetra needs to be gentle, and an air-powered sponge-style unit is usually adequate. A degree of water movement is acceptable and can help maintain stable water conditions.
Providing a suitable environment with proper substrate, decoration, and filtration is essential to the health and well-being of the Crystal Red Tetra in captivity. By providing the necessary elements in their aquarium, hobbyists can help create a healthy and thriving environment for these peaceful and delightful fish.
Water Conditions
Maintaining suitable water conditions is crucial for the health and well-being of the Crystal Red Tetra in captivity.
The ideal temperature range for these fish is 20-28 °C, and maintaining a stable water temperature within this range is essential.
In addition to temperature, the pH level of the water is also important for the Crystal Red Tetra. They prefer a pH range of 5.0-7.0, and deviations from this range can cause stress and health issues in the fish.
The hardness of the water is another important factor to consider when caring for the Crystal Red Tetra. They thrive in a hardness range of 18-179 ppm, and maintaining stable water hardness within this range is important for their overall health and well-being.
Providing suitable water conditions also involves monitoring and maintaining water quality parameters such as ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate levels. High levels of these compounds can be toxic to fish and can lead to health issues or even death.
In brief, maintaining appropriate temperature, pH, hardness, and water quality levels is essential to the long-term success and well-being of the Crystal Red Tetra in the aquarium. Regular testing and maintenance of these parameters will help ensure a healthy and thriving aquarium environment for these beautiful fish.
Diet
The Crystal Red Tetra is an omnivorous species that feeds on a variety of small invertebrates, crustaceans, filamentous algae, and fallen fruit in nature.
In the aquarium, they can survive on a diet of dried foods, but they will thrive when offered a varied menu that includes live and frozen foods.
Chironomid larvae (bloodworm), mosquito larvae, Daphnia, Moina, and other small invertebrates can be provided as live or frozen foods. These foods provide essential nutrients that may not be available in dried foods.
Offering a varied diet also helps prevent boredom and encourages natural foraging behaviors in the Crystal Red Tetra. This can help reduce stress and promote overall health and well-being.
It is important to note that overfeeding should be avoided, as this can lead to health issues and pollute the aquarium water. A general rule of thumb is to feed small amounts several times per day, rather than one large feeding.
Providing a balanced and varied diet is an important factor in maintaining the long-term health and well-being of the Crystal Red Tetra in captivity. By offering a variety of foods, hobbyists can help ensure that their fish receive all the necessary nutrients for optimal health and vitality.
Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi (TRAVASSOS, 1960) – Crystal Red Tetra
Behaviour and Compatibility
The Crystal Red Tetra is a docile fish that thrives in community aquariums, making it a suitable addition to any well-researched fish community.
When considering tankmates, it is recommended to keep them alongside similarly-sized characids, gasteropelecids, lebiasinids, smaller callichthyid or loricariid catfishes, and non-predatory, small-to-medium-sized cichlids.
To ensure a comfortable social environment, hobbyists are advised to purchase a mixed-sex group of at least 8-10 specimens. Adding other schooling fish can provide a sense of security and create a more natural-looking display in the aquarium.
Due to their peaceful nature, the Crystal Red Tetra is an excellent choice for beginner hobbyists or those looking to add a calming presence to their aquarium. Their tranquil temperament also makes them an ideal choice for a community aquarium.
On the whole, the Crystal Red Tetra is a delightful and peaceful fish that adds beauty and tranquility to any aquatic display.
Sexual Dimorphism
As Crystal Red Tetras mature, females tend to develop a larger and more rounded body shape than males. This difference in size is most noticeable in the abdominal region, where females appear plumper than males. Additionally, during breeding periods, female Crystal Red Tetras may display a brighter red coloration than males.
These physical differences between the sexes are important for hobbyists who wish to breed Crystal Red Tetras. By selecting and pairing compatible breeding pairs based on size and color differences, hobbyists can increase the likelihood of successful breeding and production of healthy fry.
Observing these differences is also crucial for overall care and health of Crystal Red Tetras in the aquarium. By being aware of these physical distinctions, hobbyists can monitor the well-being of their fish and detect any potential health issues that may arise.
Reproduction
The Crystal Red Tetra is an egg-scattering free spawner and does not exhibit any parental care for their eggs or fry.
In a mature aquarium, adult Crystal Red Tetras will often spawn, and while it is possible for small numbers of fry to appear without intervention, a more controlled approach is recommended to maximize the yield of fry.
To accomplish this, a smaller aquarium should be set up and filled with mature water. The environment should be dimly lit, and the base should be covered with a mesh or fine-leaved plant. The water should be slightly acidic to neutral in pH, with a temperature towards the upper end of the suggested range.
When the adult fish are well-conditioned, a single pair or a group comprising one or two males and several females can be introduced to each container and left in place until eggs are detected, typically the following morning.
To ensure proper oxygenation and water movement, an air-powered sponge filter or air stone should be included in the breeding tank.
Initially, the fry should be fed Paramecium or a proprietary dry food of sufficiently small grade. As the fry grow larger, Artemia nauplii, microworms, and other suitable foods can be introduced.
By following a controlled approach to breeding, hobbyists can successfully breed and raise healthy Crystal Red Tetra fry.
Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi (TRAVASSOS, 1960) – Crystal Red Tetra
Notes
Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi, also known as Schultz’s Tetra or Araguaia Red, is a species that is occasionally available in the aquarium trade. This species is typically caught as bycatch among shipments of other fishes.
Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi is a part of the Hyphessobrycon callistus species group as proposed by Géry in 1977. This group is characterized by a prominent dark spot on the dorsal-fin, usually with a white or yellow marking beneath. Members of this group are sometimes referred to collectively as ‘flag tetras’.
Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi is distinguished by possession of a relatively small humeral spot and 5 or 5½/3-3½ transverse scales, and in these respects it could not be differentiated from H. eques. The two can be separated by various aspects of color pattern, however, most obviously that in the dorsal-fin. H. eques possesses a very large dark marking that covers most of the fin above the base, whereas in H. haraldschultzi a similarly-colored marking is less extensive and is bordered above by a white blotch and below by a yellowish band while the base of the dark marking is parallel to the body profile.
Weitzman & Palmer (1997) expanded Géry’s concept and proposed the existence of a putatively monophyletic assemblage based on color pattern and male fin morphology that they termed the ‘rosy tetra clade’. It was composed of species with the following shared characters which set them apart from other Hyphessobrycon species: pink to red or reddish-brown body color, 22-29 branched anal-fin rays, 29-34 longitudinal scales, and two sets of teeth on the premaxilla with 1-4 teeth in the outer series and 7-12 in the inner series.
Hyphessobrycon was initially raised by Durbin in Eigenmann (1908) as a subgenus of Hemigrammus, differing from the latter by the absence of scales on the caudal-fin. The grouping was revised by Eigenmann (1918, 1921) while Géry (1977) created artificial groups of species based on color pattern, and these definitions are still widely used today, e.g., the H. agulha group, the H. heterohabdus group, etc.
The process of splitting Hyphessobrycon up has already started. Malabarba et al. (2012) revalidated the genus Ectrepopterus Fowler, previously considered a synonym of Hyphessobrycon. They also analyzed its relationships within the Characidae in the context of Mirande’s (2010) previous work, but included the type species, H. compressus, for the first time in such a study. The results demonstrated that H. compressus is more closely-related to ‘rosy tetra’ representatives such as H. eques, H. pulchripinnis, and H. socolofi than other members of the genus including H. anisitsi, H. bifasciatus, H. elachys, H. herbertaxelrodi, and H. luetkeni.
References
Travassos, H., 1960 – Tropical Fish Hobbyist 8(6): 5-7 Hyphessobrycon haraldschultzi new species.
Calcagnotto, D., S. A. Schaefer, and R. DeSalle, 2005 – Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 36(1): 135-153
Relationships among characiform fishes inferred from analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial gene sequences.
Géry, J., 1977 – T. F. H. Publications, Inc.: 1-672
Characoids of the world.
Hein, G., 2009 – Bulletin of Fish Biology 10(1/2): 1-10 Hyphessobrycon pando sp. n., a new rosy tetra from northern Bolivia (Teleostei, Characiformes, Characidae).
Malabarba, L. R., V. A. Bertaco, F. R. Carvalho & T. O. Litz., 2012 – Zootaxa 3204: 47-60
Revalidation of the genus Ectrepopterus Fowler (Teleostei: Characiformes), with the redescription of its type species, E. uruguayensis.
Mirande, J. M., 2010 – Neotropical Ichthyology 8(3): 385-568
Phylogeny of the family Characidae (Teleostei: Characiformes): from characters to taxonomy.
Oliveira, C. A., G. S. Avellino, K. T. Abe, T. C. Mariguela, R. C. Benine, G. Orti, R. P. Vari, and R. M. Corrêa e Castro, 2011 – BMC Evolutionary Biology 11(1): 275-300
Phylogenetic relationships within the speciose family Characidae (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Characiformes) based on multilocus analysis and extensive ingroup sampling.
Reis, R. E., S. O. Kullander and C. J. Ferraris, Jr. (eds), 2003 – EDIPUCRS, Porto Alegre: i-xi + 1-729
Check list of the freshwater fishes of South and Central America. CLOFFSCA.
Weitzman, S. H. and L. Palmer, 1997 – Ichthyological Exploration of Freshwaters 7(3): 209-242
A new species of Hyphessobrycon (Teleostei: Characidae) from the Neblina region of Venezuela and Brazil, with comments on the putative `rosy tetra clade’.
Zarske, A., 2014 – Vertebrate Zoology 64(2): 139-167
Zur Systematik einiger Blutsalmler oder “Rosy Tetras” (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Characidae).
Myers (1924) initially designated the group of fish now known as Fundulopanchax as a subgenus, based on the observation that its members appeared to occupy an evolutionary intermediate position between the genera Fundulus and Panchax, as they were then understood.
Fundulopanchax gresensi (BERKENKAMP, 2003)
Classification
Order: Cyprinodontiformes
Family: Nothobranchiidae
Distribution
The species in question has only been documented within a relatively small geographic range near the villages of Takwai I and II, Atebong Wire, and Edjuingan in western Cameroon. Its distribution encompasses the Bagwor and Mack river systems, which are both tributaries within the upper Cross River basin of western Cameroon. The type locality is situated in West Cameroon at coordinates 5°34’N and 9°50’E.
To differentiate between various populations of wild fish and prevent hybridization, they are often labelled with a code or details of their locality. In this particular case, the most commonly encountered hobbyist strain is referred to as ‘Takwai’.
Habitat
The species was obtained from forested streams with shallow, swampy sections that may experience periods of drought during the dry season. Some areas within its distribution may also face a potential threat of deforestation, although information on this matter is limited.
Maximum Standard Length
40 – 47 mm.
Fundulopanchax gresensi (BERKENKAMP, 2003)
Maintenance
Setting up the aquarium for this species does not have to be overly complex. However, it is important to cover the tank securely, as this species is known to be a strong jumper.
It is recommended to provide ample cover, such as aquatic plants, wool mops, and other suitable items. If filtration is necessary, air-powered sponge units are preferable as they will not cause harm to eggs or fry.
While lighting is not a crucial factor, it can be included if desired. Additionally, growth of filamentous algae should not be discouraged, as this can serve as a food source for the fish.
The name “Cyprinodon” is derived from the Ancient Greek words “κυπρῖνος” (kuprinos), which means “carp,” and “ὀδούς” (odous), which means “tooth.”
The species name “lvarezi” is a tribute to José Alvarez del Villar, a friend of the author who discovered and collected this species in 1952. Initially, Alvarez del Villar intended to describe the species himself, but later entrusted the task to the author.
This species was originally found exclusively in a solitary spring located near the town of El Potosí in the northern Mexican state of Nuevo León. However, it has been extinct in the wild since the late 1990s.
Habitat
The original location where this species was discovered was a single pond that received its water from a natural spring. This pond was situated in an endorheic basin called “La Hediondilla” at the base of “Cerro Potosí” mountain, with an elevation of approximately 1880 m above sea level.
The pond had undergone modifications, including the construction of an earth and rock dam, which enlarged its size. Below the pond, there were several distributaries extending for 1-1.5 km. The water in the pond was crystal clear and had abundant vegetation, including species of Ceratophyllum, Najas, Nasturtium, and Utricularia.
In addition to this species, the pond was also home to another endemic pupfish species called Megupsilon aporus, and an endemic crayfish species known as Cambarellus alvarezi. Unfortunately, the pond has since completely dried up due to water exploitation for irrigation and other human uses.
Goldfish (Carassius auratus) were introduced into the pond before 1961, and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) were first observed in 1974. Correspondingly, there was a decline in the population of cyprinodontid species.
Between 1983 and 1984, the water level of the pond dropped by 1.5 meters, and by 1985, the pond had disappeared, leaving only a trickle of water in the distributaries. Although slight recovery was observed during the early 1990s, only negligible populations of the endemic species were supported, and by 1996, the water had completely disappeared.
While a 60 x 30 cm aquarium or equivalent may suffice for a single pair, this species, like other members of the Cyprinodontidae family, thrives better in a larger tank or container as a group.
Maintenance
The aquarium setup for this species does not have to be overly complicated, as long as there are ample broken lines-of-sight. It is recommended to provide plenty of cover in the form of aquatic plants, wool mops, and other structures. If filtration is necessary, air-powered, sponge-type units are the best option as they do not harm eggs or fry.
While lighting is not necessary, it can be utilized if desired. The growth of filamentous algae should be encouraged if possible.
It is best to maintain this species alone, particularly if the goal is to encourage breeding. However, with adequate space and careful research, they can also be kept in a community setup.
Individual males require enough space to establish territories, but in most cases, multiple males can coexist in the same aquarium.
Notes
Due to its current existence solely in captivity, the preservation of this species is crucial. Therefore, it is not recommended for community fish keeping.
References
Contreras-Balderas, S. and M. de L. Lozano-Vilano, 1996 – Ichthyological Exploration of Freshwaters 7(1): 33-40
Extinction of most Sandia and Potosí valleys (Nuevo León, Mexico) endemic pupfishes, crayfishes and snails.
Miller, R. R., 1976 – Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Sciences v. 75 (no. 2): 68-75
Four new pupfishes of the genus Cyprinodon from Mexico, with a key to the C. eximius complex.
Miller, R. R. and V. Walters, 1972 – Contributions in Science (Los Angeles) No. 233: 1-13
A new genus of cyprinodontid fish from Nuevo Leon, Mexico.
Cyprinodon derives from the Greek words ‘kuprinos’, which means ‘carp’, and ‘odous’, which means ‘tooth’.
Pachycephalus comes from the Greek words ‘pakhus’, meaning ‘thick’, and ‘kephale’, meaning ‘head’, referring to the prominent head shape of this species.
The designated type locality for this species is located in Baños de San Diego, situated east of Chihuahua, Mexico at coordinates 28°35.5’N and 105°32.5’W, with an elevation of around 1140 meters. It should be noted that this species is exclusive to the spring of San Diego de Alcalá, along with its associated distributaries, found in Chihuahua state in the northern region of Mexico.
Habitat
Originally, the springs at Baños de San Diego are believed to have discharged into the nearby Río Chuviscar. However, presently they end at an artificial dam with the natural stream formed by the spring outlet having been redirected into a canal during the 1970s.
The springs emerge from circular sources that measure roughly 20 cm in diameter and combine to form a shallow, unshaded stream that is 2-3 meters wide and only a few centimeters deep.
These thermal springs discharge water at a constant temperature of 43.8°C/110.8°F, but this temperature decreases to approximately 38°C/100.4°F around 20 meters downstream. The impoundment pool records a temperature of 25°C/77°F; however, this temperature fluctuates with changes in the air temperature.
The distribution of C. pachycephalus spans throughout the system, and in the lower area, it interbreeds with the congener C. eximius. Other sympatric fish species found in the impoundment include Gambusia zarskei, as well as introduced species such as Lepomis megalotis and Tilapia.
It remains uncertain whether C. eximius and C. pachycephalus were originally found together or if human-induced modifications to the springs enabled the invasion of the former species.
While an aquarium with base dimensions of 60 ∗ 30 cm or its equivalent is adequate for keeping a single pair, it is important to note that this species, like many others in the Cyprinodontidae family, thrives better when kept in a larger tank or container as a group.
Maintenance
The setup for this species does not need to be too intricate, as long as there are ample broken lines-of-sight. It is advisable to provide a lot of cover in the form of aquatic plants, wool mops, among others. For filtration, it is recommended to use air-powered sponge-type units as these are safe for eggs and fry.
While lighting is not a critical factor, it can be incorporated if preferred. Also, it is beneficial to encourage the growth of filamentous algae wherever possible.
References
Minckley, W. L. and C. O. Minckley, 1986 – Copeia 1986(1): 184-192 Cyprinodon pachycephalus, a new species of pupfish (Cyprinodontidae) from the Chihuahuan Desert of northern Mexico.
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